Louis Nielsen

Quantum Cosmology

With

Decreasing Gravity

Unification of Micro- and Macrocosmos
A New Theory About the Universe

Conditio embryonis omnia determinat

Treatise

1. Introduction

The decrease of gravity gives a logical explanation of the expansion of the universe and its structure with galaxies, stars and planets. As a natural consequence of the deducted formulas, I shall postulate as follows: The total universe has been contained within a geometric space with an extension equal to the elementary length. This "embryonic" state of the Universe I shall call The Cosmic Embryoton. This theory does not operate with singularities. The universe was 'born' within the first cosmic quantum time interval.
'Simultaneously' with the 'birth' of the universe, the first laws of nature appeared - in quantum 'jumps'. The first super physical law was the entropy law (the law of changes). This law 'demands' that a system changes from a less probable state to a more probable state. Or, in other words: The universe develops from more compact states to scattered and less dense states. The gravity law was 'born' with a strength about 10⁴² times greater than in our epoch. With a still decreasing gravity, the gravity law follows the entropy law.

The formulas will comprise a very fundamental, extremely small mass. The formulas show that this mass decreases, simultaneously with the increase of the space of the universe and the decrease of gravity. This mass must be considered to be the smallest quantum of mass in the universe – the elementary mass. This elementary quantum of mass I will name 'a uniton'. The universe ends up to disintegrate down to quanta without structure and interactions, in accordance with the entropy law. The present theory shows that electric charge is fundamentally connected to gravity in the embryonic universe, actually it is shown that electromagnetic phenomena are of gravitational nature! The gravitational phenomena can be described by a 2-vector field theory, where the two gravitational fields obey equations analog to the Maxwell equations.

An interesting result of the theory is a cosmological theoretical deduction of the 'fine structure constant' of atomic physics. The value of this quantity has never before been fundamentally theoretically explained. It will be shown that this quantity is also decided by the conditions of the embryonic universe. These embryonic states are thus conclusively deciding how the universe will develop.

Conditio embryonis omnia determinat!

A 'firework' model for the formation of the universe is proposed, with protogalaxies and protostars formed by expansion processes, caused by the very rapid decrease of gravity in the very young universe.
Also a new theory for the production of the chemical elements and release of energy in stars will be set forth. This new theory of stars is based on the existence of super nuclei, i.e. nucleonic systems with extremely high nucleonic numbers, decaying while creating the known elements and causing production of energy.
A new theory is given for the formation of the planets and their moons. The theory gives an understanding of the planets' composition of elements and relative sizes.
Finally considerations will be given regarding the evolutions of the laws of nature.

2. Elementary Length and Elementary Time. Quantization of Space and Time

(2.1)

(2.2)

where h is Planck's constant, c₀ is the volocity of light in vacuum, and M₀ is the total matter/energy-mass of the universe. M₀, h and c₀ are supposed to be constant in space and time. With known values for c₀ and h and a calculated value for M₀ = 1.6 · 10⁶⁰ kg (see later), we get:

(2.3)

  &  

Any physical finite length is decided by a natural number , the space quantum number, multiplied by r₀. A finite time interval is quantized as a time quantum number multiplied by t₀. Thus we have:

(2.4)

  &  

The value of time is a quantity introduced by man, in order to practically describe a change in a physical system. Without change in the state of a physical system, there is no possibility to define a value of time!
r₀, the absolute cosmic space unit, can be called a spaton, and t₀, the absolute cosmic time unit, can be called a tempon.
These elementary values are absolute in the sense that they are invariant to a relativistic Lorentz transformation. r₀ divided by t₀ is equal to the velocity of light c₀, which thus understandably also is Lorentz invariant, and thus measured to have the same value to all observers.
Elementary length r₀ and elementary time t₀ shall not be considered as mathematically exact figures, but on the contrary to be 'blurred' physical figures with the interval lengths r₀ and t₀. Principally they give the physical smallest uncertainties, by which it is possible to measure distances and time intervals. Heisenberg's uncertainty relations are thus a consequence of the more fundamental relations given by (2.1) and (2.2)!

3. The Extension and the Age of the Universe. Decrease of Gravity. »Die Weltformel« or the Cosmo-Holistic Formula

(3.1)

(3.2)

Inserting in (3.1) and (3.2) the presumed values for R and T, we get:

(3.3)

Interestingly the cosmic quantum numbers n_R and n_T can be written:

(3.4)

where:
(3.5)

N gives the present value of the ratio between the electrostatic and the gravitostatic forces between a positron and an electron, or between to electrons. G is Newton's gravitational "constant" in our epoch. See later. k_c is the Coulomb constant, e the elementary charge, m_e the gravitational mass of the electron, and m_p the gravitational mass of the positron.
Equations (3.1) and (3.2) can now be written as:

(3.6)

(3.7)

Presuming that the relations (3.6) and (3.7) are valid, not only in our epoch, but generally for the universe in all its quantum states, perhaps except its final quantum state, we see that as the space of the universe is gradually increasing, i.e. when the cosmic quantum numbers 'tick' upwards, one or more of the quantities G, k_c, e, m_p, m_e, h, c₀ or M₀ must vary with R or T.
Assuming that k_c, e, m_p, m_e, h, c₀ and M₀ do not vary, the only possibility for variation is G. Astronomical and experimental observations must show whether this is the case!
Formula (3.6) gives a unification of microcosmos with macrocosmos, and consequently it is to be called 'Die Weltformel' or 'The Cosmo-Holistic Formula' (from Greek Kosmos: Order and Holos: Whole).
Variation of G with R and T gives:

(3.8)

From (3.8) we see that as G decreases following the expansion of the universe, or in other words, G decreases with cosmic time - the actual age of the universe. As no physical times exist 'before' the first cosmic quantum interval, we can from (3.8) calculate the value of G at the 'birth' of the universe, as at this time we had T = t₀, i.e. G = G₀ viz.:

(3.9)

We can thus write (3.8) as:

(3.10)

This shows that gravity was about 10⁴² times greater at the 'birth' of the universe than today. (3.10) is seen to be a quantum law.
From (3.10) we get the variation of G in relation to time:

(3.11)

Equation (3.11) is one of the interesting results of the present theory, giving a very simple relation between the actual age T of the universe and the relative variation of G. A very accurate measuring of this variation is highly desirable, as we thus have a very simple method to calculate the actual age of the universe by the equation:

(3.12)

More researchers have during time investigated a possible variation of G. The methods include studies of the evolution of clusters of galaxies and of the Sun, observations of lunar occultatins, planetary radar-ranging measurements and laboratory experiments. They all have found an extremely small variation and conclude that gravity does not vary, interpreting a variation found as uncertainty of measurements. (References: Dearborn, D. S. and Schramm, D. N., Nature, vol. 247, 441-443, (1974). Chin, C. W. and Stothers, r., Rhys. Rev. Lett., vol. 36, 833-835, (1976). Morrison, L. V., Nature, vol. 241, 519-520, (1973). Van Flandern, T. C., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., vl. 170, 333-342, (1975). Shapiro, I. I., Phys. Rev. Lett. vol. 26, 27-30, (1971). Braginsky et al., Phys. Rev. vol. D15, 2047-68, (1977).)
From (3.11) it is seen that G in our epoch decreases extremely slowly. One of the newest analyses is based on the obervation of the double pulsar system PSR 1913 + 16 and gives approx.:

(3.13)

Inserting the value in (3.13) in equation (3.12) we calculate the present age of the universe to:

(3.14)

This age is in agreement with the newest age analyses, based on measurements done by the Hubble Space Telescope. These analyses estimate that the age of the universe is between 8 and 12 billion years.

4. The Mass of the Universe Calculated from the Cosmic Decrease of Gravity

(4.1)

This equation can also be written as follows:

(4.2)

Inserting the values in equation (4.2) we get for the total energy/matter mass of the Universe the following value:

(4.3)

This value gives a possibility for a huge amount of both visible and dark matter systems, and it is this value which is used in the calculation of the values of the elementary length and the elementary time.

5. The Elementary Mass of the Universe — the Mass of a Uniton

(5.1)

From equation (4.2) we see that the universe started with an elementary mass, equal to the total mass of the universe. The universe was 'born' as one quantum mass: The Cosmic Embryoton.
It can easily be shown that m_u can also be expressed in the following way:

(5.2)

In equation (5.2), T is the present age of the universe and R is the present extension. The expressions in (5.2) are identical to the mass of a photon with 'wavelength' R corresponding to a 'frequency' 1/T.

From equation (4.2) we see that m_u is connected with gravity, as its value is decided by the relative variation of G.
This fact leads us to the following: m_u is the actual mass of a uniton. Within the 'time of birth', inside the first cosmic quantum time interval of the universe, the mass of the uniton was equal to the mass of the Cosmic Embryoton. Gravity decreases as the mass of the uniton decreases. The present extremely small value of the uniton mass explains why it is so extremely difficult to demonstrate graviton rays (gravity waves).

6. Electric Charge as a Gravitational Quantity

(6.1)

We see, interestingly, that we have both a negative and a positive value, in accordance with observations of electrical phenomena. Both attracting and expelling forces exist. We can thus conclude that the electric charge of an electron - or a positron - is attached to its gravitational mass m via the initial gravity constant of the universe, G₀.
It is hereby shown that electrical forces, which have hitherto been considered as an independent forces, in reality are 'frozen' gravitational forces, with the same strength as when the universe was 'born'. As magnetic forces can be shown to be special relativistic corrections to electrical forces, we can ultimatively conclude: Electromagnetic phenomena are in reality gravitational dynamics!
Of course we can use the usual electromagnetic concepts in our daily work.
All 'electromagnetic' phenomena can be described by the four Maxwell equations, combined with the 'electromagnetic' Lorentz force. These equations can be written as follows:

(6.2)

(6.3)

(6.4)

(6.5)

(6.6)

In these equations is the electric field strength vector, is the magnetic field strength vector, is the electric charge density and the electric charge current density vector. is the electromagnetic force on a charge, q, moving with the velocity .   is the divergence operator and the rotation operator.
It can be shown that Maxwell's equations are a consequence of Coulomb's law for electrostatic forces and the transformation equations for forces as given by the special theory of relativity. As Newton's law for gravitostatic forces is mathematically identical to Coulomb's law, a similar mathematical deduction will result in the validity of a set of gravitational equations, similar to Maxwell's equations, meaning that besides the gravitostatic field it will be necessary to operate with a gravitational rotation field, existing around moving gravitational masses. We shall handle this in a coming section.
The Coulomb constant k_c in equation (6.1) is due to the way we define electric charge. By another definition it is possible to get rid of this constant.

As it is an experimental experience that the electric charge of a particle is Lorentz invariant, i.e. is independent of the velocity of the particle, we see from equation (6.1) that the gravitational mass is also Lorentz invariant. This has serious consequences for Einstein's general theory of relativity from 1915, as this theory is based on the identity of (or proportionality between) the gravitational mass and the inertial mass. These two quantities of mass are only identical for a resting particle. The inertial mass is increasing with velocity, according to the special theory of relativity.
If the above considerations are correct we must conclude that Einstein's general theory of relativity must be abandoned as being a general physical theory and shall only be used as an alternative theory, within a limited area of experience.

The question is: Does electric charge exist in nature? Or are electrical – and gravitational forces (and all forces) pure mechanical forces exerted by unitons? See a later section in my treatise about this.

Finally, it seems to appear from the formulas of the present theory, that everything consists of unitons. If this is correct, it may be a philosophical satisfaction for our intellect!

7. The Quantum Cosmological Basic Equations. The Cosmic Evolution Quantum Number

(7.1)

(7.2)

(7.3)

(7.4)

(7.5)

(7.6)

In these equations N can be considered as a cosmic evolution operator. N³ defines a Cosmic evolution quantum number n_e, as:

(7.7)

It is to assumed that the equations are valid form the first cosmic quantum time interval of the universe and until its 'death', when the total energy will be split up in countless extremely small structureless quanta. From these cosmologic basic equations we can derive formulas which will permit us to calculate the present extension R, the present age T and the present matter/energy mass of the universe. In order to calculate the values of these quantities, we need an exact value of the present relative decrease of G.
The formulas are:

(7.8)

(7.12)

The results given in (7.8) and (7.12), being a consequence of the quantization of the universe, shall contribute to prove the validity of the present quantum cosmological theory.
It may be claimed that the value of the mass of the universe, given by equation (7.12) is on the high side. The explanation is that in equation (7.6) I have chosen to let m_p be the rest mass of a positron, not of a proton. I have done this from the - philosophical - viewpoint that I consider the positron as more fundamental than a proton.
If you in (7.6) replace the rest mass of a positron with the rest mass of a proton, N will be 1836 times smaller, which will result in a mass of the universe being 1836³ times smaller, i.e. M₀ = 2.6 × 10⁵⁰ kg.
Such change of N will not affect the values of R and T. The value in equation (7.12) gives the possibility for the existence of an extremely high amount of 'dark matter'. Future observations and analyses must show the realities.
As it will be seen, the quantum cosmological equations are quite simple. This is quite acceptable, as it is not strange that simple systems are described by simple equations. Gradually, as the cosmic embryoton is broken up in more and more parts, and these parts are moving relatively to each other, then more and more complicated equations are needed for description of the system. As the cosmic evolution operator N can be considered already to contain Newton's law for gravitational forces and Coulomb's law for electrostatic forces, we can by means of the special relativistic transformation equations deduct Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism and the analog gravitational equations, whereby it should be noted, that electromagnetism is just gravitational dynamics! I have hereby – together with the connection between the electric charge and the gravitational mass of the electron in equation (6.1) – discovered the unification of electromagnetism with gravitation!

8. Cosmologic Calculation of »The Fine Structure Constant«

The quantity called the fine structure constant plays a significant role in atomic physics. It is defined as follows:

(8.1)

This constant is totally empiric, as nobody has been able to give any theoretical reasons for it. I shall now, based on my quantum cosmologic theory, give a theoretical calculation of the value, showing that this value has to do with the embryonic condition of the universe, the elementary length and the total mass of the Universe. I shall use:

(8.2)

Using the expression in equation (6.1) we can write:

(8.3)

This equation can be written as:

(8.4)

The expression in (8.4) shows that , and thereby the fine structure constant, is decided by conditions in the embryonic universe, namely as follows: is decided by the gravitational potential energy between two electrons, spaced by the elementary length, divided by the total energy of the universe! Or, in other words, the fraction of the total energy of the universe 'used' for electromagnetic processes is about 0.12 percent.
From the above we see clearly the fundamental coupling between microcosmos and macrocosmos. G₀ is the initial gravitational constant, which can be calculated by equation (3.9).

9. A Two-vector Field Gravitational Theory with Variable Coupling »Constants«

In 1972 the authour of the present treatise proposed a two-field gravitational theory, which in its mathematical structure is identical to Maxwell's equations in electrodynamics. An article was published in the magazine GAMMA no. 9, February 1972. This magazine is published by the Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen.
Besides the gravitostatic 'Newton-field' around a relatively resting gravitational mass, a dynamic rotation field is 'created' around gravitating masses in relative movement.
This dynamic vector field shall together with the gravitostatic vector field satisfy the following differential equations:

(9.1)

(9.2)

(9.3)

(9.4)

In the equations is the divergence operator, the rotation operator, is the gravitational mass density and the gravitational mass current density vector. K is the coupling »constant« to the dynamic field. We could call K the gravitational permeability.
The relation between K and G is given by:

(9.5)

This is the value in our epoch, and we see that it is extremely small. This explains why it is very difficult to observe the effect of the field.
The force law, pertaining to the fields and , is given by:

(9.6)

where is the force acting on a gravitating mass m_g moving with the velocity in a combined and field.
The gravitational equations predict directly the existence of gravity waves.

It can be shown that Maxwell's equations are a consequence of Coulomb's electrostatic force law and the transformation equations for forces as given by the special theory of relativity. As Newton's law for gravitostatic forces is mathematically identical to Coulomb's law, a similar mathematical deduction will result in the validity of the gravitational equations (9.1) to (9.6). With the Maxwell analog gravitational equations I have – together with the connection between the electric charge and the gravitational mass of an electron – discovered the unification between electromagnetism and gravitation. Both electrical – and gravitational forces can be physically explained as uniton mechanical forces. (See a later section).
An analysis of the development of the universe, based on these equations, would be highly interesting, as it will give the possibility for an understanding of its structure as we actually observe it. Especially it would 'explain' galaxy structures, and also information received form objects in the outer universe, such as quasars, would give us information about structures in the early universe.
The interesting is that K decreases with G. At the birth of the universe, K was about 10⁴² times higher than today. The initial value was:

(9.7)

This gives the possibility for a totally different cosmic structure than the structure based on the field alone. It is well known today that the galaxy structure of the universe is far from homogene. On the contrary it shows a very irregular 'net structure'.
As the coupling 'constant' K to the magnetogravitational field in our epoch is extremely small, K = 9.2 · 10 ^-27 m/kg, it will be very difficult to observe the field's effect on gravitating particles. It will not be observed 'by accident', as when H. C. Ørsted (1777-1851) discovered electromagnetism in 1820.
In the early universe, when the gravitational mass current densities were high and the gravitostatic field varied faster, and K simultaneously war greater, much stronger fields were generated. These fields have, together with the gravitostatic fields, been deciding for the geometric structure of our universe. In accordance with the present theory, a galaxy is created by an expansion process, as an extremely dense system of matter with a small extension - a galaxy embryoton - has spewed up to several hundred billions smaller parts of matter - star embryotons - out, caused by the rapid decrease of gravity. From the star embryotons the stars were formed. As the galaxy nucleus, the remains of the galaxy embryoton, has a quick rotation and a relatively great mass density, it will create a magnetogravitational field, in which the protostars move. These protostars, and the later formed stars, will in this field move in spiral orbits. Quite analog to the orbits of an electrically charged particle in an inhomogenuous magnetic field. The magnetogravitational field thus explains the spiral structures of the universe!
This theory has been supported recently by the Hubble Space Telescope, photographing some of the earliest galaxies (about 1500). The pictures show galaxies with very regular spiral structures, so old that they can not have been formed by condensation processes, but were created when the field was much stronger.

An analysis, based on the proposed two-field gravitational theory, would be highly desirable, especially an analysis of the dynamic conditions shortly after the 'birth' of the universe.
In the very early universe, both the field and the field were extremely strong. When rapidly changed, and the mass current densities were very great; it is evident from equation (9.4) that a very strong field was created. As it will be seen, it follows directly from the gravitational equations that gravitational waves will be created. The density of the energy of the gravitational waves, generated just after the 'birth' of the universe, were extremely high. As the universe expanded, the density of the energy decreased. It must be presumed that the universe is filled by this gravitational cosmic background radiation, quite analog to the electromagnetic background radiation. I propose that this cosmic gravitational background radiation should be looked for by the projected LIGO detector (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory). Joseph Weber from the University of Maryland reported in 1969 that he had registered gravitational waves from the center of our galaxy. This may have been enormous gravitational processes, from the remnants of a galaxy embryoton. A galaxy embryoton, the fetus particle of a galaxy, is a very concentrated 'lump' of energy, emanating from the cosmic embryoton, while gravity still decreased very rapidly in the very early universe!

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10. Cosmic Firework Model. Galaxy Embryotons and Star Embryotons

Continuing the considerations in part 9, the following firework model for the universe can be set up. The total universe was created by the Cosmic Embryoton.
During the first quantum time interval after time t₀, when gravity was decreasing extremely rapidly, a great number of galaxy embryotons were slinged out. They were the fetus particles for the galaxies. During the still rapid decrease of gravity, from each of the galaxies were spewed billions of star embryotons. From these star embryotons the stars in our universe were formed.
Regarding the formation of basic elements, the above considerations lead to the following hypothesis: The elements, especially elements heavier than iron, have been created by disintegration, natural fission and decay of super-heavy nuclei, with extremely high nucleus numbers. The elements were created according to the physical conditions ruling in the expanding universe.
The galaxy embryotons were explosion-like slinged out from the cosmic embryoton, rotating relatively to each other, so that the total angular momentum was zero. These rotating galaxy embryotons have - caused by the still rapidly decreasing gravity - emitted star embryotons. A galaxy is under formation! The angular momentum of the galaxy embryoton is divided among the created stars, partly as an orbit angular momentum, partly as an eigen angular momentum. The outermost stars in the galaxy have been thrown out with the highest 'sling' power, which results in a relatively higher galaxy orbit velocity than the last emitted star embryotons. This galactic pattern of movement has been observed in many galaxies. Thus the hypothesis regarding existence of 'cold dark matter' is not needed!
The quasars, situated billions of light years from us, have also given problems of understanding, especially due to the enormous radiation of energy from relatively small spaces. The explanation may be, that a quasar is a galaxy under development, and that the center of the quasar is the remnants of a galaxy embryoton. As they are objects in the outer parts of the universe, we see, via the electromagnetic radiation, the physical conditions as they were in the young universe, where gravity a.o. was much greater. The remnants of a galaxy embryoton possibly correspond to what the established cosmology calls a 'black hole'.
Measurements made by The Hubble Space Telescope in November, 1994, show that in the outer space - thus in the earliest 'childhood' of the universe - super dense objects and galaxy structures exist. This is completely in contradiction with accepted theories.
Let us consider formation of stars from a star embryoton. As gravity decreases, the star embryotons disintegrate and at a certain time they are converted to extremely heavy, rotating 'lumps' of neutrons - balls of neutrons rotating in the universe. From these balls the stars are created - if not all stars, then the oldest. These neutron balls are presumably identical to some of the pulsars we know today.
Around the fast rotating neutron ball a strong magnetic field is created. As a result of this strong magnetic field (and maybe the quantum mechanical tunnel effect) clusters of neutrons and single neutrons are 'blown' out from the surface of the neutron ball. Some of the neutrons are converted to protons, electrons and anti-neutrinos. The extreme conditions will cause the creation of a hight amount of super heavy nuclei (a better expression may be macro nuclei), defined by extremely high nucleus numbers, not present i our epoch.

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11. New Fission-Fusion Model for Stars with a Central Core of Neutrons

The following describes a new model for the sun and other similar stars. As an example, let us consider the construction of the sun and the processes taking place within it. Generally the sun has a stratified structure and function. The central part consists of a relatively small rotating neutron ball, consisting exclusively of neutrons. This rotating neutron ball is the source of the primary magnetic field of the sun. Around the neutron ball is a zone of super nuclei, with different, very high nucleus numbers. These super nuclei have 'evaporated' from the surface of the neutron ball, assisted at the escape by the strong magnetic field and possibly by the quantum mechanical tunnel effect.
Within this zone of super nuclei, decays take place by spontaneous and induced fission and by , , and processes. These processes produce energy, and simultaneously the heaviest elements are created, down to iron, which is the most stable nucleus we know. Neutrons, -particles and lighter elements, created by fission and decay of the super nuclei, are 'blown' outwards in the sun by the pressure of radiation and particles. The neutrons are converted to protons, electrons and anti-neutrinos, by which hydrogen atoms can be built. -particles give the possibility for production of helium atoms. In the zone of super nuclei, the abundance of iron is increasing as the disintegration of super nuclei takes place. Hydrogen, helium and some of the lighter and heavier elements will be 'placed' in two zones around and outside the super nucleus zone. In the inner hydrogen/helium zone, where temperature and pressures are high, fusion processes take place, producing energy and lighter elements. The second hydrogen/helium zone is identical to the outer layer of the sun and consists, as spectral analysis shows, of hydrogen, helium and lighter elements, mixed with a small amount of heavier elements. These super nuclei can, under certain physical conditions, disintegrate and decay by different types of reactions. A certain super nucleus can decay a.o. by successive multifissions - natural as well as induced - , , , and decay. By decay is meant all other than , and decay. Possibilities are emissions of nuclei of carbon, oxygen, silicium, sulphur etc. By the disintegration processes, energy is released, in the form of kinetic and radiation energy. The pressure from particles and radiation causes an 'inflation' of the system of matter. An active star is formning!
Regarding the possibility for the existence of super nuclei, the condensation of a multi-particle system was theoretically predicted by Einstein and Bose about 70 years ago, and in 1995 such Bose-Einstein condensate was successfully produced for the first time. So, in the vast universe, where all possible physical conditions may occur, everything is - almost - possible.

The star model can now be resumed as follows:

At the core: Rotating neutron ball:

A relatively fast rotating neutron ball, source of the primary magnetic field of the star and also source of the super nuclei, emanating towards the surface.

Next follows: The Super nucleus zone - Fission zone:

A zone consisting of super nuclei, disintegrating and decaying with release of energy and simultaneous production of elements heavier than iron.

Third layer: The Iron zone:

A zone with relatively high abundance of iron, and with balance between fission and fusion processes.

Fourth layer: H-He zone 1 - Fusion zone:

A zone consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with fusion processes, releasing energy and creating lighter elements.

Outer layer: H-He zone 2 - Fusion free zone:

A zone consisting of hydrogen, helium and lighter elements, mixed with some heavier elements.

The outer layer we know quite well from studies of spectres. On the contrary, information from the other zones are presently difficult to analyze. The studies of neutrinoflux, magnetic fields and helioseismology must confirm or reject the present model. The theory may possibly be confirmed as follows: the inner, rotating neutron ball with the strong magnetic field will cause radiation of pulsar-like radio waves, emitted in a cone centered around the magnetic axis. This radiation will, however, be distorted on its way out, passing the secondary magnetic field, created by the movement of electrically charged particles.
In order to confirm the present theory regarding production of energy and creation of elements, measurements must be made of the neutrino flux leaving the sun. This has been done with the result that only about 1/3 of the amount to be expected from the calculations on the accepted fusion model were registered. This is a great enigma, maybe the solution is the present model? The specific reactions for the disintegration of super nuclei are not presently known, therefore it is not possible presently to predict the emitted neutrino flux.

The present theory is more than current theories in accordance with the entropy law, predicting that a system will change to a condition with higher probability - greater disorder. Fusion processes result in a more structured system, and thus actually contradict the entropy law. Locally and temporarily, the entropy may decrease and be kept constant, even if it totally seen always will increase. It must be presumed that nature always 'choses' the simplest and most direct processes. Guarded and dictated by the entropy law, the whole universe will end as a 'soup' of structureless particles!

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12. New Theory for the Formation of Planets and their Moons

Matter from which planets are created has been spewed out from an already active sun, in which production of energy and creation of elements are well under way.
The preplanetary matter has been 'rotationally' slinged out by a two-step explosive mechanism. The outer planets, with the lowest density, have been created first. The inner planets, with the highest density, have been created last. The outer planets, Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter, are thus the oldest. The inner planets, Mars, Earth, Venus, and Mercury, are the youngest. Let us first consider the creation of the outer planets. At a certain time, an unstability has arised in the active Sun, starting an explosion process. The outer layers of the Sun, rich in hydrogen and helium, have been slinged out in space and have gathered to a rotating, preplanetary ring of matter. Due to the gravity of the Sun, this matter is attracted by the Sun. This results in two effects: partly that the original disk of matter is divided in more separate ring systems, partly that the amount of matter has been highest nearest to the Sun. During time the different rings of matter condense to the different outer planets. The greatest planet, Jupiter, nearest to the Sun, and then outwards with decreasing magnitude, outermost Neptun. (Pluto is possibly a planet which has gone astray and ended up in the outer parts of the solar system). Today it is known from analyses that the outer planets mainly consist of hydrogen and helium, mixed with few heavier elements.
After the initial solar explosion process, the outward pressure from radiation and particles have decreased. This has resulted in a gravitational contraction of the outer layers, which now have obtained a much higher abundance of heavier elements, especially iron.
A second solar explosion (in time presumably much later than the first) slings matter out, much more abundant in heavier elements, especially iron. From this matter the inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the asteroids, are created. But furthermore, the moons and rings of matter around the outer planets from Jupiter and outward, also consist of this matter. The matter has simply been captured by the gravity of the planets and has started orbiting. Hereby is explained why these moons and other matter, orbiting the outer planets, consist of elements similar to the elements of our Earth.
Matter between the Sun and Jupiter, orbiting the Sun, is exposed to two gravitational forces, one from the Sun and one from Jupiter. This has two effects: partly that the disk of matter is divided into 5 disks, partly that the disks nearest to the Sun and Jupiter are 'leanest', and the disk in the 'middle' between the Sun and Jupiter is 'thickest'. From this latter the Earth has been created. The smallest planets, Mercury and Venus, and those containing the heaviest elements, especially iron, have been created nearest to the Sun. From the rings of matter nearest to Jupiter, Mars and the asteroids have been formed. Due to the high gravity of Jupiter, the ring nearest Jupiter has not been able to form a planet. The same would be valid for a possible ring of matter between the Sun and Mercury. Inside the orbit of Mercury it is possible that smaller and bigger lumps of matter orbits the Sun. Due to the intense light from the Sun, observation is extremely difficult. The existence of such lumps of matter could give an explanation of the Mercury perihel anomaly! Einsteins theory thus would not be necessary.
It is also understandable that Mercury is practically a ball of iron, orbiting the Sun.

Information from the probe from the spacecraft Galileo, which in December, 1995, penetrated the atmosphere of Jupiter, support the above theory, as it showed that the atmosphere contains much smaller amounts of helium, neon, carbon, oxygen and sulphur than expected according to the theories, hitherto accepted by the astronomers. As seen above, my theory claims that the outer planets primarily consist of hydrogen and some helium.
The Galileo probe has furthermore measured the content of water in the jovian atmosphere to be similar to the content in the atmosphere of the Sun, which is also support for my theory. Further the probe has confirmed what has been measured earlier, that the planet Jupiter emits more energy than can be explained by known processes, such as reflected sunlight. This can be explained by presuming that Jupiter - and other big planets - in its inner parts contains macro nuclei, i.e. super nuclei with an extreme number of protons and neutrons. The possibility for the existence of such 'condensed' nucleonic systems requires an enormous pressure in the inner of the planet. Macro nuclei under less pressure decay to smaller parts with release of energy, in the form of kinetic energy and photon energy. This energy is transported out through the planet and results in the measured radiation of energy.

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13. Super Fundamental Nature Constants of the Universe and Evolution Parameters

In the human search of truth questions are: Who are we? From where do we come? To where do we go? Who, what, and how is our universe guided or controlled? In physics, where it is the goal to find the most systematic and objective replies to the above questions, the existence of a set of physical constants, controlling coupling and strength of the processes in a system, has been discovered. They are the nature constants, e.g. the velocity of light in vacuum c₀, Planck's constant h, Newton's gravitational constant G, the electric elementary quantum e, the mass of the electron m_e, Boltzmann's constant k, etc.
The questions are: 1) Are these constants independent of each other, or is there a dependence? 2) Are they the most fundamental in our universe, or does there exist some super fundamental nature 'constants', from which other can be deducted? 3) Are they really constants, or does any of them vary with the expansion of the universe?
In my opinion, the nature 'constants', which we use in our theories today, are constants at a higher level than the most fundamental. They can be deducted from super fundamental nature constants. Which constants are then super fundamental? They are: The total mass of fields and matter in the universe, M₀, elementary length, r₀, and elementary time, t₀.
Furthermore of an evolution parameter, 'responsible' for that the universe exists and that it is undergoing an evolution. This evolution parameter is N and powers of N.
The number of particles in the present universe is of the order N². The absolute entropy of the universe is a function of B. At time t₀, the 'birth' of the universe, the entropy was zero.
One of the main results of the present theory is the coupling between microcosmos and macrocosmos - it is a holistic theory. The determining, and most fundamental figure in our universe is the mass M₀.
M₀ is, together with elementary length and elementary time, deciding for the value of the coupling constants of the physical laws.
It must be presumed that the physical laws undergo an evolution like everything else, so that some are 'born' with possibilities for later 'mutations', while others 'die', so that the 'strongest' laws will mainly decide how the evolution and the structure of the universe will take place.
Information about the structure of the nature laws are already present in the embryonic condition of the universe.
Conditio embryonis omnia determinat!
Ultimatively all laws will terminate!

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Louis Nielsen
Mejerivej 25A,
DK-4700 Næstved
Denmark

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